Annals of Botany 2009 103(2):i; doi:10.1093/aob/mcn263
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Evolutionary analysis of the polygenic Sub1 locus in rice
Fukao et al. (pp. 143–150) report on the gene and allelic diversity of the
Sub1 genes (
Sub1A/
B/
C)
in domesticated rice,
Oryza sativa, and its wild relatives,
O. nivara and
O. rufipogon. The
Sub1A gene, which can confer
submergence tolerance, arose from gene duplication of
Sub1B,
apparently prior to the divergence of the
indica and
aus subspecies
of
O. sativa.
Developing submergence-tolerant rice varieties
Short-term flooding
causing complete submergence of a rice crop causes major yield
losses in many rice growing areas.
Septiningsih et al. (pp. 151–160) investigate the effects of the ERF genes
Sub1A and
Sub1C, and
describe marker-assisted backcrossing with the
Sub1A gene to
develop six submergence-tolerant rice varieties, showing great
potential for cultivation in flood-prone areas.
Adaptation by rice plants to flash flooding
Sub 1-1A gene traits
provide a ‘quiescence strategy’ of slow elongation
and conservation of carbohydrates in rice, leading to survival
of complete submergence.
Kawano et al. (pp. 161–169) find
that cultivars with fast shoot elongation are generally intolerant
of flash floods, because shoot elongation under water depletes
carbohydrates. Carbohydrate conservation and suppression of
internal translocation from stores appear as the most important
factors determining tolerance to complete submergence.
Oryza glaberrima escapes complete submergence
Sakagami et al. (pp. 171–180) examine two cultivated species of rice for submergence-escape
responses to prolonged, complete submergence. Leaf elongation
and growth in shoot biomass is greater in
O. glaberrima than
in
O. sativa. Escape from prolonged, complete submergence requires
the ability for strong leaf elongation under water, which leads
to later benefits of enhanced expansion of leaf area and photosynthesis.
Rice germination and seedling growth in the absence of oxygen (Review)
Rice seeds are able
to germinate anaerobically by means of coleoptile elongation.
Magneschi and Perata (pp. 181–196) review the literature
on rice germination and seedling growth under anoxia, particularly
in the light of recent transcript profiling data. The molecular
responses of the rice coleoptile to anoxia are described.
Flooding tolerance during germination and early seedling growth in rice
Flooding seriously
hinders crop establishment in direct-seeded rice. Under hypoxia,
tolerant genotypes germinate, grow faster and more seedlings
survive.
Ismail et al. (pp. 197–209) find that they use
stored starch reserves through higher amylase activity and anaerobic
respiration, and produce more ethylene. Germination under water
also helps in weed management.
Rice phosphorus and water regime
Huguenin-Elie et al. (pp. 211–220) report evidence that rice plants depend upon root-induced solubilization
processes for the bulk of their phosphorus uptake, regardless
of the soil water regime. But cultivars adapted to different
water regimes do not differ greatly in the extent to which they
solubilize phosphorus, and cultivar rankings for phosphorus
response are similar across water regimes.
Waterlogging tolerance affected by soil microelements
Waterlogging tolerance
of wheat depends on the soil, especially at extremes of pH,
and this is largely an effect of microelement toxicities (including
Mn, Fe, Al, B and Na), which are exacerbated during waterlogging
in different soils.
Setter et al. (pp. 221–235) review
large waterlogging trials in India and Australia, and relate
tolerance to soil and plant tissue microelements during waterlogging.
Coping with salinity and waterlogging
Tolerance of combined
salinity and waterlogging stress is evaluated in
Hordeum marinum by
Malik et al. (pp. 237–248). Some accessions maintain
Na
+ and Cl
– ‘exclusion’ from leaves, even
in an O
2-deficient, saline medium. Wheat, by comparison, suffers
increases in shoot Na
+ and Cl
– concentrations.
Hordeum marinum might, in the future, be used as a donor of tolerance
into wheat.
Cytoplasmic pH changes in transgenic plants during anoxia (Technical Article)
Using methyl phosphonate
as a non-toxic
31P NMR pH probe,
Couldwell et al. (pp. 249–258) show that alterations in the activity of lactate dehydrogenase
in potato tubers, and pyruvate decarboxylase in tobacco leaves,
do not necessarily alter the response of the cytoplasmic pH
to anoxia in the way that might be expected from the Davies–Roberts
model of pH regulation.
Plant mitochondrial function during anaerobiosis (Review)
Under anaerobic
conditions, nitrite can serve as an alternative electron acceptor
in plant mitochondria.
Igamberdiev and Hill (pp. 259–268) note that nitric oxide (NO) is a significant product of the
reaction of nitrite reduction arising from a reaction with cytochrome
c oxidase. The excess NO is scavenged by hypoxically induced
haemoglobin. By using nitrite, mitochondria retain a limited
capacity for ATP synthesis, contributing to survival in anoxic
conditions.
Profiling the adaptive responses to hypoxia
Plants can decrease
their oxygen consumption in response to relatively small changes
in oxygen concentrations to avoid internal anoxia.
Van Dongen et al. (pp. 269–280) use transcript and metabolite profiling to investigate the genomic
response of arabidopsis roots to a mild decrease in oxygen concentrations.
The results show that there are adaptive changes in root extension
involving large-scale reprogramming of gene expression and metabolism
when oxygen concentration is decreased in a very narrow range.
Measuring and interpreting respiratory critical oxygen pressures in roots
Armstrong et al. (pp. 281–294) analyse how respiratory critical oxygen pressure determined
from O
2-depletion rates in media bathing intact or excised roots
can be unreliable for indicating respiratory O
2-dependency in
O
2-free media and wetlands. Modelling, and sampling for cortical
[O
2] in intact roots, provide evidence of low COPRs in wetland
and non-wetland plants dependent upon the dimensions and diffusive
properties of the stele/stelar meristem and enzyme kinetics
of cytochrome oxidase.
Flooding adaptation in Cyperus, a weed in lowland rice
Cyperus rotundus has become a problem weed in lowland rice.
Peña-Fronteras et al. (pp. 295–302) find that adaptation from aerated uplands to flooded lowlands
is associated with increased tuber size with carbohydrates predominantly
stored as soluble sugars, an ability to maintain higher amylase
activity under hypoxia, and a greater ability for anaerobic
respiration, as reflected by higher activities of ADH and PDC,
in order to supply the energy required during flooding.
Submergence tolerance in a succulent halophyte
Halophytes grow
in saline soils, and in many cases these areas are also flood-prone.
Colmer et al. (pp. 303–312) evaluate submergence tolerance,
over a range of NaCl concentrations, of
Tecticornia pergranulata,
a stem succulent halophyte common to salt lakes of southern
Australia. Underwater photosynthesis was low, so sugars declined
with time after submergence, despite a ‘quiescence response’
(i.e. no growth).
Root-to-shoot signalling closes stomata
Soil flooding rapidly
closes stomata. This prevents injury from foliar dehydration
that would otherwise result from depressed hydraulic conductances
in O
2-deficient roots.
Else et al. (pp. 313–323) explore
the extent to which closure in tomato (
Solanum lycopersicum)
is an outcome of damage to the photosynthetic apparatus and
any associated rise in internal CO
2.
Underwater growth suppression in azuki bean epicotyls
Submergence severely
reduces the growth of terrestrial plants.
Ooume et al. (pp. 325–332) examine the cellular basis of underwater growth suppression
in epicotyls of
Vigna angularis and show that a decrease in
the osmotic concentration is a main cause. This may be brought
about by inhibition of proton co-transport of organic solutes
into epicotyl cells due to a decrease in ATP.
Effects of oil on gas transport in Phragmites australis
Armstrong et al. (pp. 333–340) show that water-borne light oils, e.g. paraffin and diesel,
readily penetrate stomatal surfaces and block internal gas spaces
of leaf sheaths and stems. This prevents convective flow to
the rhizome and greatly decreases ROL to rhizospheres and phyllospheres.
Oil also displaces surface gas films on submerged organs. Buds
emerged only approx. 20 mm through an oil film and then
died.
Flooding tolerance of species from two contrasting wetland habitats
Future use of former
river floodplains as floodwater retention areas will result
in frequent submergence of the vegetation present.
Banach et al. (pp. 341–351) find evidence that, in contrast to riverine plant species, wetland
species currently growing in such former floodplains do not
necessarily tolerate deep flooding. This will lead to great
changes in species' abundance in these future river forelands.
Leaf emergence upon submergence (Short Communication)
Rumex palustris can survive shallow flooding by leaf emergence resulting from
ethylene-induced petiole elongation. Leaf emergence stimulates
biomass accumulation, indicating that resurfacing is beneficial
for this species (
Pierik et al. pp. 353–357). Interestingly,
artificial leaf emergence in
R. acetosa was not found to stimulate
biomass accumulation. This is explained by the low petiole porosity
hampering gas exchange between shoot and root upon emergence.
Adaptations to prolonged submergence in the Amazonian floodplains (Review)
In Amazonian floodplains,
1000 tree species grow in an environment subject to extended
annual submergence that can last up to 9 months each year. Water
depths of 10 m fully submerge young and adult trees in
complete darkness.
Parolin (pp. 359–376) presents a review
of how these remarkable plants react to submergence and discusses
mechanisms and adaptations that may explain their success.
Variation in flooding tolerance within Trifolium repens
Plant species from
river forelands must have the capacity to survive occasional
flooding.
Huber et al. (pp. 377–386) show that variation
in flooding tolerance can be found even among individuals of
a single wild species. Clones of
Trifolium repens expressing
greater petiole lengths and quantities of aerenchyma in response
to soil flooding were more tolerant, whereas non-flooded conditions
selected for other traits. Temporal and spatial variation in
flooding frequency will thus contribute to the maintenance of
genetic diversity in floodplain grasslands.
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